An introduction

There is a long and very strong tradition of the concept of the Islamic garden throughout the Arab world. It is also a well understood concept in the West, though from a slightly different perspective, perhaps because of our lack of a real comprehension of its roots in Islam. Because of the way in which we in the West tend to understand Islamic gardens, it is important to make the distinction between the more classic view of the Islamic Garden and that relating to the gardens of the Arabian peninsula.

But first, a small diversion. I really get depressed when I see in many developments the extent to which landscaping and architecture have moved away from each other. It is now unusual in the West for an architect to be able to design the landscaping of a project as well as the building itself. Regrettably this problem extends to the design of buildings on their sites with architects generally seeking to design iconic buildings, but I will deal with that elsewhere. I am not specifically arguing for architects to design landscaping but at least to work in concert with landscape architects. In the past there have been extremely successful relationships, such as with Lutyens and Jekyll. Nowadays there seems to be competition rather than a joint understanding of the benefits to clients which exist in collaborative design. I believe the the problem of integrated design exists in both professions. I firmly believe that the two disciplines have to work together and produce coordinated schemes. This is as, if not more, important in the Gulf as it is elsewhere. Rant over…

There is a lot of literature relating to landscaping, and I recommend that anybody interested in this subject should comb libraries, bookshops and, of course, the Internet, to see what they might learn. With regard to Islamic gardens I believe it’s particularly important to have a widerperspective, which is why I will digress a little.

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Introversion

First you should be aware that the introversion characteristic of houses in Islamic towns was reflected not only in the development of buildings, but also in the manner in which landscaping was treated. The Islamic town concentrated attention on the internal development of the house, an arrangement which focussed particularly on the courtyard. In the often harsh climate, landscaping was developed within this contained area in a manner that reflected the relationship between a Muslim and his religion. I have touched on this introversion elsewhere and believe it is one of the keys to understanding Islamic architecture and, especially, Islamic garden design. The relationship begins in the private side of the household, and proceeds outwards from there.

By contrast, western design had no compunctions about exposing its designs to the wider world. Certainly there were many with a strong religious component to their work and relationships, but the designs we know tend to be the larger gardens, built by or for people with considerable funds to establish gardens, some of which they would never live to see due to the time taken to establish them.

These were not introverted designs. They were ostentatious designs, designs to be seen by peers and others, designs to impress: the antithesis of the thinking behind Islamic designs.

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Western gardens

The Western landscaping with which we are familiar tends to be the formalised terraces of Italy and France, with their dominance of man over nature, or the exaggerated naturalistic styles of England. I should also add that there is, possibly, a precursor by two hundred years to the naturalistic English gardens at the Villa Lante, Bagnaia, Italy. These gardens visually stretched away from the house in attempts to dominate or make monuments of nature and focus attention on distant sculptings of the landscape, and exercise which took considerable effort in terms of men and horsepower. Another point worth considering is that, because of the scale of the planting, the designers and owners would not have been able to see the full fruits of their exercises in their lifetimes.

Perhaps William Kent is an exception in that it can be argued he took considerable pains to create visual links between house and surrounding landscaping, though he and those whom he influenced, were more concerned with visual effect than practical coordination. In this there is a distinct difference between concentration and focus on nature as an aesthetic interpretation of perfection, and nature as an interpretation of paradise – an aesthetic, compared with a reflective exercise or pursuit.

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Far Eastern gardens

It might be useful to look briefly at Chinese and Japanese garden design as it may be thought there is more of a link between them and Islamic garden design due to the religious component of the two types. The bases of Chinese and Japanese garden design are extremely complex and I can’t say I understand them. What is written here is only done so in order to give a bit more context to what is written about Islamic garden design, so that it is not seen just by comparison with Western garden design.

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Chinese gardens

Chinese gardens historically pre-date Japanese gardens which derived from them, perhaps via Korea. I understand that the essential differences are those caused by their being based on different religions: Chinese gardens were rooted in Confucianism and Taoism, whereas Japanese gardens were more strongly influenced by Bhuddism. In addition to this, Japanese gardens are thought to have had a stronger religious basis than had Chinese gardens.

The Chinese house and garden were seen as unlike in character and were meant to be used differently by their occupants. Not only were they of dissimilar characters, but this difference was consolidated by the physical link between them being structured and strongly defined by doors. In this they might be regarded as similar to many Western gardens, regrettably. It’s possible that the difference might also come about from the house being seen to be different and separate from nature. But Chinese gardens were meant to be enjoyed and lived in, perhaps more as a functional element of the household’s pattern of living. Nor was there the same degree of religious spirit to the Chinese garden compared with its later Japanese cousin. There was, however, a very strong link between painting and the garden brought about through the Taoist influence with its awe of nature.

Confucianism had much to do with relationships rather than laws and is seen to be humanistic or even agnostic in its essence; in fact Confucianism and established religions are not mutually exclusive and, for two thousand years, Confucianism was the main doctrine of China. Taoism, its partner, deals with balance and harmony but is, in a sense – and in contradistinction toConfucianism – more anarchic in its support of the individual or natural societies and not the insitutionalised societies promoted by Confucianism.

The Chinese house tended to be rectangular in form reflecting the materials of its construction, and was usually built around an internal courtyard. The garden was an adjunct of it and had a character dependent upon the owner and its designer. Many were considered to be ‘scholar’ gardens, so-called because they were intended for the pursuit of intellectual, moral or scholarly development. Confucianism introduced the elements of mountains and water to the simpler Taoistinformality. Increasing wealth saw the expansion of gardens and, with it, the introduction of pavilions, covered walkways and the introduction of a visual design vocabulary intended to bring a range of feelings to the user of the garden, but what particularly characterised the Chinese garden was

• an insistence on non-geometric planning to replicate nature,
• its use of three design depths, each parallel to the picture plane, and requiring the eye to move from one to another to create the illusion of great depth,
• the manipulation of scale to increase the above illusion, and
• the incorporation of four specific elements:
  • rocks,
  • water,
  • buildings, and
  • plants.

Japanese gardens developed to a large extent on the concepts noted above. The philosophical or religious basis of Chinese gardens were adapted and developed in a manner suited both to the smaller sites available in Japan, the colder climate and, of course, the different socio-religious circumstances.

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Japanese gardens

Japanese gardens were, like Chinese gardens, an attempt to create a utopian space suited to relaxation and contemplation, a space that could be used and enjoyed, particularly by those living in troubled times.

In considering Oriental gardens it has to be borne in mind that the vocabulary we in the West use in their design – such as form, texture, sound, motion and colour – are not as important in design and enjoyment as aesthetic – philosphical and religious – and symbolic elements. These are key concepts used in the overall composition of the garden and might not be looked for by a Western observer. In this I think there is some similarity with Islamic design. Almost every Japanese garden incorporates elements relating to water, islands of stone, plants and garden accessories, elements that relate to Japan and the development there of Zen Bhuddism introduced in the thirteenth century. The late Dr. Kawana described the Japanese garden as having a number of intrinsic features.

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Symbolism

Water and islands are features symbolising the islands of Japan and the surrounding sea fed by its rivers, though it is not important for water to be actually in the garden: water features may be created with dry materials.

Symbols of auspiciousness and longevity are often incorporated into gardens. Cranes, tortoises and pine trees are three such symbols of longevity, and the pine and bamboo are symbols of auspiciousness.

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Aesthetic

Much of the aesthetics we understand in the West can be read in Japanese gardens, particularly those informed by Zen Bhuddism which forms the basis of most Japanese gardens. These include:

• simplicity,
• lack of artifice,
• elegance,
• subtlety, and
• tranquility and the like

which are key elements in Zen philosophy and are at the root of Japanese garden design. In particular, and in contradistinction to Islamic design, there is a preference for asymmetry, an aspect of garden aesthetics associated with a lack of perfection in form and shape as well as in a preference for odd rather than even numbers.

• mu is a state of simplicity or ‘nothingness’,
• koko relates to the importance of age brought about by quality and time and accompanied by mellowness and maturity,
• shizen is created by the lack of artifice,
• yugen is the achievement of profundity with mystery, the use of darkness to create stillness and tranquility and the utilisation of the technique of
• miegakure or avoidance of full expression which requires the hiding of a part of the whole, in addition to which
• wabi, austerity,
• sabi, elegant simplicity, and
• shibui, tastefulness should be added to
• seijaku or the attainment of stillness, quiet, and tranquility.

So, with these the Japanese garden strives to create a particular feeling or character in the observer, one that is

• specific to that particular location, one that
• reflects the seasons and variations of nature, and one that
• reflects the variety of philosphical and cultural characteristics of the Japanese.

There are a number of different types of Japanese gardens as might be expected, but they may be considered as comprising two types:

• those designed to be seen from a static position and which might be considered to be more contemplative, and
• those designed to be enjoyed from a moving position, usually a path;

neither of them use any form which could not be seen in a natural situation and, generally, they must also be entered to be experienced. This latter requirement gives rise to the use of fences and screens to define, focus, hide and reveal.

Planting in Japan made use of the wide variety of natural plants found there, but you should be familiar with the concepts of

• emulating nature in the overall design of the garden,
• ensuring that every element and its placing has meaning and contributes to the overall balance and harmony of the garden,
• having the garden reflect all seasons of the year,
• using rocks and dry material to simulate water, both static and flowing, and
• the use of plants to block near-by, non-natural elements and focus the viewer’s eyes on far, natural elements, a concept known as ‘borrowed scenery’ as it effectively incorporates external natural features as elements within the owner’s private garden.

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Islamic gardens

Elsewhere I noted that Islam swept outward from Arabia, establishing itself over a large geographical area in which a variety of societies and traditions pre-existed. As a consequence, the architecture and landscaping which then became known as ‘Islamic’, demonstrate a wide diversity of styles responding to those geographies, climates and societies, while overlain by a number of ideals specific to Islam. In short, Islamic design varies, though is linked by a common unity of spirit. And this applies, of course, to Islamic gardens, though I’m likely to make a number of generalisations in attempting to sum this up – for which I apologise in advance.

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Paradise

There is a strong association between the concept of Islamic gardens and paradise. The Persian word, pairidaeeza, is a combination of two words that mean ‘surrounding wall’, thus the concept of paradise is of a garden or gardens, surrounded by a wall, isolating those within and enabling them to enjoy the features established within the wall.

The word ‘paradise’ is derived from the Persian, pairidaeeza, arriving in English via Greek and Latin. In Arabic the name for a heavenly garden is jannah, of which the highest level of garden isfirdaws, most commonly used in the phrase jannaat al-firdaws – gardens of paradise.

The characteristics we associate with Islamic gardens are mostly based on Persian gardens which existed before Islam moved out of the Arabian peninsula. The concept of Paradise being a garden pre-dates Islam, Christianity and Judaism by thousands of years. Originating with the Sumerians, paradise gardens were also a feature the Babylonians reserved for their gods, introducing two of what were to become basic elements of an Islamic garden: trees and water. With its adoption by the Greeks, Paradise became associated in the Abrahamic religions with Heaven.

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Characteristics of Islamic gardens

By contrast with Western landscaping, but with some similarity to Japanese, Islamic landscaping was introverted and miniaturised in some parts of the Islamic world where it set out to represent the paradise described in the Holy Quran. Not only that, but the injunction against naturalistic representation in Islam generally avoided the psychological projection of the viewer from the site by omitting designed references to objects found outside the site.

This relationship of landscaping with architecture was essentially reflective, perhaps being best epitomised in the Western mind with the development of the Alhambra in Granada, carried out at a peak in the development of arts and thought in Islamic Spain. In particular the use of water as an essential element of the design – perhaps more important than planting – demonstrated a sophistication and sensibility to the introspective nature of Islam that has rarely been matched. Views from the Alhambra permitted sight of the outlying scenery and, in this manner, reinforced the delicacy of the interior development of the palace, and its containment and relationship with nature. Some experts believe it to be the most perfect marriage of buildings with internal and natural landscaping.

Having said that, the Alhambra we see today is the product of later development. Following the success of the reconquista which saw Christian Spain retake Granada and the Alhambra in 1492, the Alhambra was left to deteriorate for a long period of time and was only brought back to life in the last century under the combination of an increasing number of European travellers and Victorian romanticism. Because of this we can not guarantee that what we now see replicates the original design.

One final note on the Alhambra is that it, together with buildings such as the Chehel Sutun pavilion in Isfahan, demonstrate the blurring of internal and external spaces, a feature not just of buildings in hot climates, but where philosophical ideals create the conditions which join man with nature, and reflect this in their structures and planting.

Before I leave this area I should also mention Mughal gardens. Earlier I noted that Islam moved out of the Arabian peninsula and, adapting traditional Persian gardens, introduced them to Moorish Spain in the West and to the Mughal Indian sub-continent. Although Moorish and Mughal landscaping were not coeval, they represented local developments of design under Islamic influence. Both are regarded as incorporating Islamic gardens which, of course, continued within Persia and elsewhere.

The Mongols moved into Persia in the thirteenth century, then on to the Indian sub-continent taking with them the concept of the Islamic garden with them, gardens referred to as Mughal, perhaps the most famous being the Taj Mahal. There is more about Mughal gardens on thiswebsite and, for those with a particular interest, the site’s bibliography is likely to be useful.

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Basis of Islamic garden design

Referring to the ideals I mentioned earlier, the basis of Islamic design is, or should be, rooted in three concepts:

• the Holy Quran, where there are a number of verses dealing with the Islamic concept of Heaven,
• the hadith, the traditions, teachings and sayings of the Prophet, and
• the arid geography of much of the area in which Islam developed and gained supremacy.

The reference I made in the previous paragraph suggests that there are seven basic considerations for an Islamic garden:

diversity,

is considered to be more satisfying when achieved through an element of unity. There is interplay between the real and ideal, practicality and fantasy, tangible and symbolic, physical and metaphysical, and urban and natural;

beauty,

and aesthetic qualities are seen as important in Islam. Traditionally, artistic endeavours have developed but have always been seen to be an integral part of life. Beauty is not a luxury in Islam, but a goal, which is why it is not wrong to decorate the interior of a building while keeping the façade plain: this is a direct expression of the richness of the soul and the humble appearance of the body;

conservation,

especially as an element of environmental concern, is a basic tenet of Islam. The use of water, particularly, is carefully controlled and, when used, there are likely to be three factors in operation: the need to humidify the area in which it is located; its function as an element of a design bringing reflection or mobility and sparkle to that design; and its aural quality, capable of producing a range of sounds into a relatively quiet environment;

contextuality,

or the requirement to have a garden designed in response to other elements of architecture or planning. There must be an orderly spatial plan in Islamic cities, even if this is not apparent from a Western perspective;

individualism,

is considered central to Islam, where each person is responsible directly to God. It follows that, within the common objectives of a particular society, individual responses to design are the rule, bearing in mind that individuals also have a duty not to harm their neighbours’ enjoyment;

multiple-use,

is a concept that is central to the Islamic garden. A garden should provide food and water not only for the inhabitants but also animals and birds; its trees and shrubs will produce fruit and herbs as well as shade, movement and scent and, where possible, a range of active and passive activities should be accommodated within it; and

moderation,

a subject I touched on previously, relates to the need to maintain a balance of man with nature, and neither to impose a form of rational will on nature as occured in France, nor to submit to a concept of nature as happened in England.

These appear to be the basis on which the older, traditional Islamic gardens were premised, as well as forming a proper basis for new design.

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Necessary requirements of gardens

Such considerations, together with the descriptions set out in the Holy Quran and hadith, produce the five elements of design suggested by Hala Nassar necessary for incorporation into a garden if it is to resemble the descriptions of the Garden of Paradise. These are:

Quadripartite layout

The traditional design of an Islamic garden with which we are familiar was developed in Persia and, later, is likely to have been based on both the Holy Quran as well as the need to irrigate the garden. Its two-dimensional characteristic lies in its quadripartite design, by which it is divided by four water courses which are said to represent the rivers to be found in paradise – 047:015:

…in it are rivers of water incorruptible; rivers of milk of which the taste never changes; rivers of wine, a joy to those who drink; and rivers of honey pure and clear.

These four rivers tend to be brought together at a central fountain or pool, a feature and focus of the garden.

Water

Water is a central element of Islamic garden design where it has both a physical and metaphysical importance. Islam was established and grew in a part of the world which has a hot, harsh climate and where water brings life to the desert and those who live in it. The Holy Quran talks of the garden – 056:031:

…wherein are two fountains flowing.

and – 055:050:

…water flowing constantly.

and these concepts, both conceptually and physically, are central to the use of water in the garden.

Vegetation and shade

In hot, arid climates the promise of water is a design imperative, but so too is the concomitant requirement for shade. The Holy Quran promises that ̵ 004:57:

…We shall admit them to shades, cool and ever deepening.

The Holy Quran contains many references and allusions to the features of the gardens that await the faithful. But it is not just shade that it promised. Coolness, lush greenery, fruit and beauty are also features of the garden. These help to create a setting for rest and enjoyment, providing fruits and shade, colour and movement.

Pavilions

Within the garden the Holy Quran promises that there will be pavilions from which the faithful will be able to enjoy the garden ̵ 039:020:

But those who keep their duty to their Lord, for them are lofty halls with lofty halls above them, built (for them), beneath which rivers flow. (It is) a promise of Allah. Allah faileth not His promise.

and – 018:031:

For them will be Gardens of Eternity; beneath them rivers will flow; they will be adorned therein with bracelets of gold, and they will wear green garments of fine silk and heavy brocade: They will recline therein on raised thrones. How good the recompense! How beautiful a couch to recline on!

and – 055:054:

Reclining upon couches lined with silk brocade, the fruit of both the gardens near to hand.

These pavilions are specified as being elevated and constructed over running water and from which good views of the gardens are to be enjoyed as are, of course, the pavilions themselves and the life lived within them.

Walls and gates

Paradise, however large or small it may be, is surrounded by gated walls – 039:073:

And those who feared their Lord will be led to the Garden in crowds: until behold, they arrive there; its gates will be opened; and its keepers will say: ‘Peace be upon you! well have ye done! enter ye here, to dwell therein.’

From a physical point of view, enclosure has three facets to it:

• there is a need to keep out the encroaching desert, enabling the area within it to be organised and tended more easily,
• the enclosed area concentrates the eye and mind on the area and activities within, and
• the walls mark ownership, establishing the area as special in some way.

To relate this to the Gulf and the present, visiting one of the many farms in the desert is an interesting event. Approach is made across the open desert where the farm can first be seen as an isolated object, and an increasingly welcoming sight. Entrance is relatively dramatic in the change of environment and, having entered, it can be difficult to imagine what the desert outside is like, so pleasant is it within the farm. Although the purpose of a farm is different, the combination of water, plants and a place to sit and enjoy them is something that can easily give a foretaste of the paradise to come. There must be an element of this understanding in the psychological feeling that Qataris have to their farms and gardens.

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The traditional Islamic garden

So far I have described the elements that go to make up our vision of a traditional Islamic garden, but have done so without describing the physical layout.

This diagram is of a reflecting pool. I have seen a number of them in Iran and I have placed it here as it seems to me a beautifully simple example of the use of water within an urban area. Situated within urban, courtyard houses, the central feature of the courtyard is a slightly raised pool whose surface is contained by a small wall having a circular quadrant top, its edge forming the outside level for the water. This edge device, or similar modern versions, are now popular on what are termed ‘infinity pools’. In a courtyard setting this fine, plane mirror reflects the sky and surrounding buildings but has the added advantage of having water pumped into it from below, the water spilling over the edge into a surrounding channel and running off to water peripheral planting. The curved edge of the upstand glistens from the water run-off, there is a small amount of sound associated with it, and the surface of the water changes through the day. I should add that, like most water devices, it humidifies, and is best suited to dry, arid regions, and not humid regions.

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Gulf planting

One of the saddest sights that can be seen in Qatar are gardens which have been allowed to go to waste. This is particularly true of date palm farms as can be seen in this photograph.

Qataris love gardens and one of the most pleasurable experiences is to sit with friends or family in a date palm farm and talk and eat, by day or night. But time and an increasing population have brought two particular pressures to bear on such gardens:

• saline inundation, and
• commercial pressures.

The abstraction of water from the wells around Qatar has brought increasing salinity. Although the government requires licences for those using wells, it has not been able to prevent the slow increase in salinity of well water with the steady influx of sea water, particularly near the coast.

At the same time the development of urban settlements has meant that land has increased in value. This has made the land on which palm farms sit too valuable to ignore as a resource for the construction of buildings with the effect that they have been allowed to die prior to being redeveloped. In some parts of the world trees are protected and permissions have to be obtained to cut them down. I am not aware of any developments in Qatar which have been able to retain some or all the palm trees as a resource for those living and working in those developments. Instead, landscaping is carried out from scratch and with a plant palette which is not always based on native species, something the government is attempting to deal with.

First of all you should be aware of the most significant factors which influenced traditional Islamic planting and the circumstances under which planting is now carried out. Essentially they are the:

• religious component of Islamic planting, which has much to do with
• the socio-economic conditions under which planting and landscaping is now carried out – both in the private and public sector,
• the strengthening of a secular government with its policies on beautification, and
• the availability of water in quantities which were previously unimaginable.

It is also possible that there was a resistance to planting in public areas even though there are well-defined controls for operating in the public realm, and for the public good. However, I suspect that the absence of water has been the main difficulty. One of the consequences of the above is that, in the old towns and villages, there was no public planting. If there were any plants at all they were tamarix, acacia – a thorny, straggly tree which is able to exist with very little water, mimosa – a form of acacia with yellow flowers to which some are allergic, together with some of the small plants that are able to grow in marginal locations – similar to grass in the West, though much more sparse. To give some idea of what trees can be commonly seen, the photographs above are, from left to right and top to bottom: tamarix, cupressus, mimosa; and ficus nitida, washingtonia and felix dactylifera – the date palm.

Conditions in the Gulf are, and were, relatively simple and harsh. The first use of the courtyard with regard to landscaping was for the provision of productive planting – for fruit and shade. Date palms were usually the first planting within a courtyard but I have also seen oranges and lemons there as well as ficus even though there is no product from it other than shade. I have also seen bougainvillea which I suspect was used as it is relatively hardy, is colourful and has a degree of security associated with it. Here you see some more common sights around Doha.

In Umm Salal Muhammad the housing seems to have been in relatively small plots, perhaps because they were optimised in order to retain use of the areas of valuable rawdha or sweet soil. This provided areas given over to structured planting with date palms in irrigated rows and below them, I believe, plants such as melons were grown with, perhaps vegetables in their season. What, I don’t know.

With regard to decorative plants, bougainvillea, oleander, hibiscus and jasmine were common in the area, and still are and can be seen all over the country both in the public and private sectors. One of the reasons for this is that gardeners tend to share the plants under their care. The result is that there appears to be a small, common palette of plants used on the peninsula. Hibiscus presents usually as a deep red flower against dark green foliage.

Bougainvillea makes a vivid and attractive presentation – though often on the other side of the wall against which it’s planted – and has the additional advantage of providing a high degree of protection through the density of its branches and thorns as well as being useful as a shade plant. These three characteristics can be clearly seen in the upper of these two photographs.

There is a good case for encouraging bougainvillea planting in this manner as it brings considerable attraction to the street scene through its soft form contrasting with boundary walls, its colour and movement. It grows quickly and has a flower head that many find attractive, though not, perhaps, as much as single-headed flowers such as hibiscus.

Oleander presents as a rather large bush, usually with yellow flowers and serves no real purpose other than show. Additionally, it is poisonous. Jasmine, on the other hand, is likely to have been selected not only for its looks, but particularly for its perfume. It is lovely to come across it at night and, bearing in mind how sensitive Qataris are to smell and taste, I can understand why it has become popular.

It’s probable that the relatively small amount of planting had much to do with the lack of water to feed relatively unproductive plants such as floral bushes. In addition to the shortage there would have been, in the towns, a problem with the high salinity levels. Nevertheless, date palms and bougainvillea were relatively common in Doha as were mimosa and the ubiquitous acacia trees which establish themselves relatively easily.

Planting was generally peripheral to the courtyard and, together with the usual collection of chickens and pigeons, tended to lend an agricultural appearance to at least a part of the courtyard unless the developed site had more than one external courtyard, in which case there was a tendency to have one of the courtyards developed to production, the main one being more recreational in character.

I understand that there was vegetable planting in the past, though I’ve not yet been able to quantify it. The traditional dishes of Qatar featured at least onions, the additional spices being bought in from the nearby suq, as would have been rice and the wheat used for the flour which was ground for bread and presumably any vegetables that were needed such as peppers and limes. But the knowledge of suitable plants would have been available as would the plants themselves. Oranges, lemons and limes were grown as were, I’m told, bananas and melons. In fact I can remember a banana tree being taken down in the nineteen seventies and being told it was the last one in Doha, though I also remember doubting it… There are certainly a few banana trees now as well as considerable vegetable planting. I don’t know if the initiative comes from the house owners or from the gardeners who come, in the main, from the Indian sub-continent and seem to have a love of all forms of planting often, as has been my experience, without recourse to asking or listening to the wishes of the house owners.

In considering plants and the ingredients for meals in Qatar – and much else as well – it might be borne in mind that Qatar is situated on what was an extremely busy trade route. There were only two routes along which to move goods from the Indian sub-continent and Far East to Europe: shipping had either to travel

• from the Indian Ocean around the Cape of Good Hope, or
• through the Arabian Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. For this route there were only two options:
  • through the Gulf and then overland, or
  • through the Red Sea and, after its opening in 1869, the Suez Canal.

Nowadays basic vegetables are grown in many gardens and I believe this replicates traditional practice. Both Qataris and ex-patriates grow for their own use and, in the case of the larger gardens, produce vegetables that are given to family and friends as there are surpluses in season.

Nor do I believe there were many – if any – formal, landscaped gardens in Qatar. This may well have reflected a consequence of the need to give private spaces over to the necessities for running the household. It’s perhaps understandable in the desert developments, but it might have been anticipated that, with the strong influence from the other side of the Gulf, there would have been the type of courtyard design associated with the towns there. But, perhaps not. Those courtyards made considerable use of water, often in the form of reflecting pools; but such use of water tended to be related to dry climates, whereas the climate of the littoral of Qatar is humid maritime. In such a climate it is, perhaps, unlikely that an attempt would have been made to increase humidity with its attendant decrease in comfort.

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Public planting in Qatar

All this changed in the seventies with the first public garden established between the ‘B’ and ‘C’ ring roads south of the centre of Doha, the Al Muntessah gardens. This had become possible with the improving production of water in large quantities. Initially some of the water used for irrigation was produced from deep well extraction, a process that has always been an issue but difficult to control due to a number of factors. But with problems caused by the increasing salinity created by well water extraction, the water was mixed with desalinated water to reduce the effect of salt build-up in the soil and consequential damage to the planting. For a number of reasons this wasn’t too successful due to the concentration of salts on the soil surface with time, but I shall discuss that elsewhere.

In the eighties or nineties this policy was changed to water obtained from sewage treated effluent. This water was safely produced and its use managed with all the tankers supplying the water being marked to ensure none was delivered to houses needed potable water – this was a time when many houses were being supplied by tanker as the mains distribution system was unable to keep up with the demand from the development of new housing areas on the outskirts of Doha, and elsewhere.

It was an extremely valuable addition to counter the growing water problem in the State. The application of sewage treated effluent water was relegated to areas where the public wouldn’t have direct access due to concerns some had for their safety with the application of this new resource. As a consequence, planting was mainly associated with structured arrangements along the road system – specifically roundabouts and medians though these were, coincidentally, great gathering places in the hot summer nights for those involved in this type of work. Previously effluent treated water was used only on some areas of agricultural land. At one stage the Ministry of Municipal Affairs had their workers associated with watering tested to ensure they were not being adversely affected by working with the effluent water. These workers were found to be significantly more healthy than the control group against which they were tested. But I digress…

Along with the parks, planting was introduced on the public roads. Where new roads were wide enough to incorporate medians, trees, grass and low planting was introduced, and a similar policy was adopted for roundabouts. Nowadays many of the roundabouts have sculptures on them, but the initial treatment was low planting and trees as is illustrated by this roundabout. The incorporation of lighting on a landscaped roundabout made them attractive for many of the expatriate community, particularly at night where some of the roundabouts were packed with people enjoying the twin novelties of grass and light.

The first photograph illustrates the character of the first steps in median planting with a single specimen planted lineally along the centre strip. This developed rapidly along medians such as the second photo taken on one of the radial roads serving Doha. This is one of the later developed roads as it was relatively generous in terms of its width. I think I photographed it between the ‘C’ and ‘D’ ring roads south of the centre of Doha. Earlier developed roads such as the Rayyan Road were constrained by existing development so the central reservation could only take palms and lighting systems. Sometimes grass was introduced, the whole system being watered from tankers.

This photograph was taken in the New District of Doha and shows the benefits of a more generous central reservation. Grassed, and with peripheral planting, the median was raised by kerbs designed to inhibit vehicles crossing them, a security innovation in the nineteen eighties that followed an attempt on the life of the Ruler of Kuwait. They were popular areas and were used in the evenings by many inhabitants of Doha as they could have easy access, meet friends and enjoy picnics under the public lighting systems.

A considerable effort is being made to institute planting in the public areas of Qatar, no more so than in Doha. This first example is located on the ‘D’ ring road and shows a surface mounted system installed to give a trickle feed to the shrubs planted there. There are also a series of palms, each surrounded by a small declivity designed to hold water. It appears that the system is designed to feed water also to the palms, a much better system than the previous one which had water tankers moved along the road watering the palms with hoses, a process that was damaging to the installation as well as wasteful of water. The lower photograph shows a ficussurrounded by a ground level installation. It is difficult to say what kind of system this is intended to be, and I would have to assume that it is there for shrubs in a system similar to that above. Black hoses are the common material used for supplying water but, as you would expect, laying them on close to the surface creates extremely high temperatures in the water within the hoses.

This photograph was taken in summer and illustrates poor practice although the grass appeared not to be suffering. It is better to have water supplied to the roots of plants for two reasons. Firstly the system is more conservative of water and, secondly, it supplies water to the roots of the plants rather than to the surface where it burns off in the heat as well as damaging the plants by the action of the heated water on the plants’ surfaces. It is also preferable to water when it is cool, in summer it is suggested that pre-dawn watering would be optimal.

I have added this photograph to illustrate that, where possible, attempts are usually made to save trees where demolition is taking place, at least until a decision is made as to whether they might be kept within a new design or not. Here the standard method of protection is shown with a bund created around the tree which both gives a degree of protection as well as providing a contained area for water to feed the tree, usually brought be tanker.

The additional water resources enabled the State to begin a planting programme not only of specimen trees and shrubs, but also of floral displays, some of these on a very large scale. While there is not the height of plants that can be found in more temperate climates, there is a wide range of textures and, particularly, of colour to be found in the planting palette of the Gulf. Both private and public gardens in Qatar can have a riot of coloured flowers, attracting insects and, with them, birds; a very much changed environment from that which obtained in the Qatar peninsula only a generation ago.

Traditionally, flowers have been an important element in Arabic literature, both in their scent and in their individual display as well as their being grouped elements of the gardens in which they are planted. The colours they present offer a strong contrast to the buff colours of the limestone peninsula, and are an obvious source of delight to those using the gardens. Some of those looking after gardens can be seen with a flower tucked behind their ear, for instance.

This is so not just for the nationals but is particularly true for expatriates. While nationals have their own gardens, many of the expatriates working in the country don’t, though they commonly will grow plants where they live, apparently preferring plants with scent.

In addition they tend to go to public areas in order to meet fellow countrymen. Forty years ago areas such as the gardens at the airport and roundabouts were the places these expatriates congregated and it was a common sight to see these areas crowded at night with men obviously enjoying these small gardens. Nowadays the practice continues though with far greater choice. But what is also noticeable is the number of families that come out to enjoy the gardens. The Corniche in particular is a real attraction in the evenings, and the gardens in the different parts of the country are well used.

I should also note that one of the methods by which the private gardens were populated with plants was by those who tended the municipality gardens bringing plants to the private gardens they worked on out of hours. This tended to produce a limited palette of plant material, but it certainly assisted the dispersal of plants around the country.

At the same time the State had begun to develop its public planting along many of the main roads in Doha. The favoured plants wereficus nitida or retusa and the date palm which were established at regular intervals along many of the roads. In the top photograph you see the fruit of the palm being harvested by two municipality workers. Note the two colours of the fruit. It’s a different product from the boxes of dates commonly seen in the West, the light-coloured, unripened date being fibrous compared with the dark, ripened, softer fruit. Arabs like to eat them when the dates are half ripe, the ripeness extending from one end, so they can enjoy the different sweetnesses and textures. In the lower photograph you can see dates in a wider range of colours and states of ripeness.

Private gardens

Private gardens were, and still are, developed carefully with the incorporation of rawdha into the gardens. A valuable and disappearing resource, rawdha is kept to relatively small areas and in shallow depths. This photograph shows an old site under redevelopment. The ground has been excavated to about two metres and, in the cross-section exposed of the previous garden, a deposit of rawdha can be seen to a depth of about half a metre on the right, while a slightly different type of mix can be seen on the left for the date palm, to a depth of around a metre.

Private gardens, for the most part, follow the character of design on the public areas. The reason for this is threefold, I believe. They replicate – albeit on a minor scale – the planting of public areas, the planting palette available for purchase is limited, and gardeners tend to establish the gardens rather than the owners. There is also a difference between gardens established or developed by ex-patriate tenants compared with nationals. Here you can see grassed areas, peripheral shrub planting – yet to develop, ficus and bougainvillea.

That reminds me, I should have mentioned earlier a very strong initiative introduced by the government in the nineteen-eighties. They decided there would be a preference for planting native species rather than imported ones. Exactly what constitutes ‘native’ is a matter of some conjecture and debate, but it is reasonable to expect this, at least in public planting. There is an interesting aspect to this policy. It is similar in intent to the direction formulated around the same time – that there should be a return to Islamic architecture. I don’t recall the two policies being linked, but there is an obvious relationship between them.

This photograph illustrates a different kind of garden development that appears to spring from the developer having a considerable proportion of paving compared with the usual garden, more typically illustrated in the photograph above. It will have cost the developer more to pave the external area, but it is a sensible decision bearing in mind the increasing interest government is showing in restraining the quantities of water used by households generally, and for landscaping in particular. You will see from the photograph that there appears to be considerable shade in the garden, but the notable feature is the preponderance of potted plants that bring colour and life to the garden. While restricted in growth by the root ball that can develop in the pots, this system allows a degree of flexibility in that the plants can be moved around. The only problem is the method of watering which is dealt with below, where trickle feeds are preferred – admittedly difficult with potted plants – and heavy streams of water are to be avoided due to the mechanical damage they cause. An interesting point to note is how the concrete paviors have been wetted, a common practice that helps to cool the ground but increases humidity in the air.

Returning to the issue of plant selection, there is another consideration. In the West the changing climate is having an effect on how plants are selected and maintained. This has two important components.

Firstly, the warmer temperatures are allowing non-native plants to be used to effect, increasing the palette available to designers and gardeners. The obverse side of this availability is that some of the native species are now struggling to survive.

Secondly, the amounts of water required to support native plants is increasing dramatically. As the higher temperatures are causing a decrease in water availability, native species become more difficult and expensive to maintain.

If the same effects apply in the Gulf – and I can’t say if or to what extent they might – then there would be an argument to incorporate species more suited to the even higher temperatures that might obtain there. Again there are two considerations for such a policy.

Firstly, the plant species most likely to thrive in an extremely hot climate tend to be considered unattractive in formal situations such as planting in public parks and along roads. Species such as acacia and similar plants are thought of almost as weeds, and species such as cacti are generally small, don’t move and rarely display. I’ve heard them categorised as being boring.

Secondly, the Gulf states generally believe they have the wealth to produce the amounts of water needed to support their industries and residential requirements and may be disinclined to amend present policies.

However, not all areas of the Arabian peninsula have the luxury of the revenues from oil and gas. In April 2007, Yemen announced that it was running out of water and would have to consider moving part of its population out of its capital, San’a. This illustrates what has been known for some time: that climate change and water shortage is having a serious effect on national economies and living standards, and that this will become and increasing problem for hot countries. In fact, it is widely believed that it is likely to lead to war between countries competing for water resources.

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The planting of date palms

For centuries the areas of rawdha soils in the peninsula have been developed for farming. A number of crops were traditionally planted, but in many ways the plant material of preference was the date palm. In Qatar this was treated as a single crop whereas, in other parts of the Arab world such as Iraq, the land on which the date palms were planted was in multiple ownership, each owner planting a crop which created a microclimate under which the smaller plants in different ownership benefitted, with up to four crops being maintained in this way. Sometimes in Qatar other crops were grown under the date palms but, of course, there was only a single ownership.

This photograph, taken from a postcard, one of a number issued by the government in the nineteen sixties or seventies to promote tourism, shows a typical view in a farm with the date palms divided by water channels, and grass being allowed to grow in the area between the trees.

The greatest difficulty with planting on the thin rawdha soils of Qatar is establishing the plants at the outset. Traditionally this was effected in the following manner and using a palm of about two metres in height:

• a hole was dug for the tree pit of about 2 x 2 x 1.5 metres deep. This usually meant that the bedrock had to be dug into;
• the spoil of rock from digging the pit was broken up and some of it placed back in the pit to a depth of no more than 20 centimetres to provide some basic drainage;
• the pit was filled with water and covered with matting for at least 24 hours with the intent of allowing the water to soak into the surrounding soil and bedrock;
• when the water had drained away the root ball of the date palm – about 80 centimetres in diameter – was set in the centre of the pit ensuring that there was at least 30 centimetres from the top of the root ball to the surface;
• the pit was backfilled carefully with the rawdha soil, ensuring that the mixture was properly compacted and watered as the filling and compacting was carried out;
• the area immediately around the palm’s trunk was maintained at a lower level than the surrounding ground level in order to attract and retain moisture to the tree. Traditionally this area was about 1.2 metres in diameter and a small mud retaining wall, about 10 centimetres high was constructed to retain water;
• the tree was watered when the compaction was complete and area surrounding it covered with hessian or a similar material to act as a mulch;
• protection was provided to the trees against the shamal by the use of cane screens, both in order to allow the trees to grow straight as well as reducing evaporation from the surface of the ground; and
• sometimes the tree was propped with canes though this is not now the practice. I am not sure why this is so.

While the above notes are as I remember being told some time ago, I can not guarantee they are accurate.

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Common plants

It is not my intention to cover all the plant material that can be found native in Qatar as that would be impossible for me. There is professional literature such as this which covers the area, and I recommend anybody with an interest in native plant material to refer to them.

Eventually this part of the notes might be organised more usefully but, for the time being, I shall just place here plant material which I feel is most interesting.

Dhanoun

One of the plants which is commonly seen in the desert in Spring is, in fact, a parasite.Dhanoun is a root parasite which commonly attaches itself to the roots of the common desert plants,qataf and shnaan. It is found in the littoral salt marshes around Qatar, growing to a height of over 300mm, and has an attractive display, its flowers ranging in colour from yellow to purple.

Sidr

There is a tree, native to Qatar, which has been adopted in name by the Qatar Foundation which has taken the name, sidra, because of the tradition the tree has in Qatar:

Traditionally the shade of the sidra tree was a retreat for poets and scholars, who gathered beneath its branches to discuss and impart knowledge. The fruit, flowers and leaves of the sidra, whose deep roots allow it to flourish in harsh desert climates, were components in many traditional medicines. All these qualities make the sidra a beloved icon in Qatari history and culture – and an apt symbol for Qatar Foundation, which seeks to be a haven for learning and a source of comfort to the people of Qatar and the region.

The sidra occurs in three forms, one of them wild – ziziphus nummularia, the other two cultivated – ziziphus mauritiana and zizphus spina-christi. My understanding is that they all have the same local name, sidra or sidr, though the wild version differs in being more of a shrub than a tree. Theziziphus mauritiana is larger than the zizphus spina-christi. As mentioned above the fruit of the sidrais eaten and known locally as kanaar and nabq respectively for the ziziphus mauritiana and zizphus spina-christi.

Species selection

I mentioned previously that the State is interested in using plants which are native to the region, one of their difficulties being the perceived unsuitability of some of the species which have been introduced in recent years. I have also written about the likelihood that other countries are going to have to bring in species suited to the warmer climates which are now becoming more frequent with global warming. Qatar, of course, has a hot climate to begin with and this, together with the State’s ability to produce water with the wealth generated by oil and gas, is likely to militate against a ban on foreign species, particularly in the private sector, even if the State bans them for their own use.

Set out below is a list of species of plants thought suitable for the region and given to those building their houses on the New District of Doha when the programme for constructing housing began there.